Improving Access to Nature in Urban Environments

Improving Access to Nature in Urban Environments In an urbanizing world, discuss the value of green and blue spaces in towns and cities and describe some of the approaches being used to improve access to nature. Introduction 50 years after Henri Lefebvre identified seeds of planet ‘Trantor’, Isaac Asimov’s (1995) completely urbanized science fiction planet, amidst the Earth’s urbanization (Merrifield, 2013), 54% of global population today are urban dwellers, and it is projected to increase to 66% in 2050 (United Nations, 2014). Lefebvre’s prognostications are coming true at a staggering pace. Such booming population growth in cities and towns puts immense pressure on ever-shrinking urban spaces. In light of competing land use, the frantic pursuit of economic prosperity and social advancement has neglected urban green and aquatic environments. Many remain incognizant of the importance of nature and its access within increasingly concretized landscapes. The benefits and detriments of urban green and blue spaces will be explored using a multi-dimensional approach considering various aspects of urban nature’s importance. Health Dimension To begin with, from the perspective of well-being, green and blue environments satisfy a fundamental human need for a conducive environment. Human evolution theory suggests that modern humans have developed a certain genetic inclination to respond positively to habitat settings favourable to survival and well-being of their ancestors (Kellert and Wilson, 1993). These responses are believed to be triggered when immersed within nature. As such, the restorative effects of nature seem to serve as ‘natural tranquilizers’ amidst the urban hustle and bustle (van den Berg et al., 1998). For instance, Ulrich (1984) discovered that hospital patients with the opportunity to look out onto greenery recovered much quicker from surgery than those whose views were confined to buildings. This reflects the recuperative influences of green spaces on well-being of urban dwellers. Further research also strengthened evidence of restorative sounds and visual properties of water and waves withi n aquatic spaces (White et al, 2010). The array of physical and spiritual healing functions of natural environments provide the basis of human needs that make cities and towns liveable. Socio-Spatial Dimension Moving on, from a social paradigm, natural environments within urban localities can facilitate social progression by allowing people to seek emotional refuge while providing valued recreational space. ‘The free world of the public park has always evolved a pre-lapsarian world of innocence and autonomy’ (Thompson, 2002, p. 66). Indeed, chasing after better lives and getting to places on time have caused personal time to be left behind amidst busy cosmopolitan lifestyles. The serene natural environment is perhaps the only place where one could seek emotional shelter in terms of privacy and self-reflection. In addition to being emotional sanctuaries, urban green and blue spaces represent extended recreational space amidst congested urban environments. Growing urban populations are forcing people to live even closer than ever before as land use becomes competitive. For instance, half of Hong Kong’s population is housed within continuously shrinking living space at app roximately 13.4m ³ per individual (Hong Kong Housing Authority, 2014). Increasing proximity between humans generates feelings of confinement within countless of man-made walls. Hence, the presence of open green and blue spaces allow urban dwellers to step away from the highly-constrained landscapes of built environments, where there is space for one’s privacy and for forging social relationships free from cramped cities and towns. While recognising the importance of urban green and blue spaces, it would be myopic to overlook any potential detriments. Although these natural environments are paradise away from stressful urban life, they could also be harbour potential danger. These natural habitats provide ‘wild’ breeding grounds for crime and incivilities, and could ‘be a place of fear and anxiety’ (Thompson, 2002, pp. 66). Research studies revealed that visitors to promenades along the Rhine in Cologne and Dà ¼sseldorf, especially women and elderly, were concerned about theft and harassment in addition to issues of victimisation (Và ¶lker and Kistemann, 2013, pp. 120). The manifestation of crime and anti-social behaviour creates negative perceptions and feelings of powerlessness that indirectly erect mental barriers for potential nature users. Development Dimension Apart from the benefits that urban inhabitants enjoy, it is also imperative that we consider the advantages of having urban natural environments within cities and towns. Urban green and blue spaces contribute to the sustainable development of built environments, in both economic and ecological dimensions. Research conducted by White et al. (2010) revealed that combined green and blue environments were most preferred, depicted in Fig 1. Fig 1: Research Conclusions on Environment Preference Ratings Source: White et al. (2010), pp. 487 The aesthetic appeal of nature highlighted above translates to higher fiscal revenue and monetary returns for the urban settlement. For instance, people were found to be willing to pay almost 8% to 12% more for housing properties with views of water and green interface across several districts within the Netherlands (Luttik, 2000). In addition, urban greenery also attracts greater influx of foreign investments into cities and towns, exemplified by the beautification of Singapore as a â€Å"garden city† that propelled the city’s economic rise (Braatz, 1993). Hence, the presence of green and blue spaces in urban areas create positive perceptions of pleasant environments, which makes cities and towns more alluring in the economic sense. Furthermore, ecological footprints of urban development could potentially be mitigated. Research has shown that 85% of air pollutants and dust particles can be filtered out in a typical-sized urban park (Bolund and Sven, 1999), In addition, the combined effects of green and blue spaces are also effective in combating the urban heat island effect. Ambient temperatures within Chapultepec Park in Mexico City were observed to be 2 °C to 3 °C lower than surrounding urban areas (Jauregui, 1990/1991). The presence of natural spaces helps to regulate the urban environment and make cities and towns more hospitable. For any urban settlement pursuing sustainable development, these green and blue spaces may hold the answers. Improving Access to Nature Growing understanding of the urban nature’s beneficial outcomes and potential detriments has generated renewed focus on making nature more accessible. Different definitions of improving access underpin the myriad of strategies and implementations that have been adopted. Firstly, the shift in focus towards ‘green infrastructure’ which involves enhancing engineered water infrastructure by integrating nature with urban ‘grey infrastructure’ have become increasingly popular (Wendel et al., 2011). This approach interprets improving accessibility as increasing the distribution of natural spaces. Recent academic literature suggest that we â€Å"may have to bring nature to people rather than have people come to nature, especially in urbanized environments’ (Lin et al., 2014, pp. 6). Thus, nature should be incorporated into existing urban infrastructure to raise opportunities for encounters. In Tampa, Florida, converted storm water ponds enhanced with green spaces saw a 35% increase in walking access (Wendel et al., 2011). On the other hand, in South-East London, such incorporation was done through the restoration of a section of river Ravensbourne within Cornmill Gardens by replacing concrete encasements with natural slopin g banks and bank vegetation (The London Rivers Action Plan, 2009). These strategies, combining landscape and water management, mimics natural watersheds to enhance urban hydrology while greatly improving public access. Another strategy to improve accessibility points towards public education espousing human connections with nature. This approach understands improving access through raising motivation to visit nature. Education theory suggests that ‘biophilia’ (Kellert and Wilson, 1993) and interest in nature are encouraged by early childhood experiences (Stokes, 2006). Removal of such experiences would dramatically reduce one’s motivation to visit nature regardless of accessibility. To illustrate, the Forest Schools Education (FSE) movement was originally developed to develop a greater affinity with nature for pre-school children in Denmark. This Scandinavian concept, now adopted across pre-schools worldwide, develops children’s appreciation of nature through regular visits to natural spaces for play (Forest Schools Education, 2013). Cultivating one’s orientation towards nature through interactive opportunities can therefore develop life-long motivations to visit t he natural environment. Thirdly, improving accessibility by reducing barriers to usage advocates the improvement of public amenities within natural spaces. This approach focuses on creating safe and conducive conditions for public access to nature with a peace of mind. This greatly reduces perceptions of danger and encourages frequent access. In Santa Cruz, Bolivia, over 65% of respondents highlighted safety as the main obstacle that limited accessibility of nature (Wendel et al., 2012). Hence, access to nature can be augmented through improved public amenities and infrastructure to make these spaces safer. In Bogota, Columbia, improving access to nature focused upon heightened security and safety through installing fences, increasing uniformed guard patrol frequencies and improving lighting conditions (Berney, 2010). Thus, safe natural environments would encourage more frequent visits and greatly reduce deterrence of usage associated with perceptions of danger. Conclusion Being indispensable ecological assets in today’s urbanizing world, urban green and blue environments deliver an extensive range of crucial functions that cover health and social benefits to ecological and economic goals. Facilitating public access to these ‘lungs of the city’ (Sutton, 1971) through a spectrum of interventions ensure that the opportunities and perks provided by these urban ecosystems help improve the quality of urban life. As planet Earth increasingly resembles ‘Trantor’ more than ever before, we must realize that in order to sustain the development of cities and towns, urban natural environments are a ‘must-have’ rather than a ‘nice-to-have’. 1509 words Bibliography Asimov, I. 1955. Foundation, (Voyager Paperback, London). Berney, R. 2010. Learning from Bogota: How municipal experts transformed public spaces, Journal of Urban Design, 15(4) pp. 539 – 558. Bolund, P. and Sven, H. 1999. Ecosystem Services in Urban Areas, Ecological Economics, 29 pp. 293 – 301. Braatz, S. 1993. Urban Forestry in Developing Countries: Status and Issues, in Kollin, C., Mahon, J. and Frame, L. (eds) Proceedings of the Sixth National Urban Forest Conference: Minneapolis, Minnesota, September 14-18, 1993, (American Forests, Minnesota). Forest Schools Education, 2013. ‘Introduction to Forest Schools’, http://www.forestschools.com/course-material/forest-schools-general/, Accessed 11th October 2014. Hong Kong Housing Authority, 2014. Housing in Figures 2014, https://www.housingauthority.gov.hk/en/common/pdf/about-us/publications-and-statistics/HIF.pdf. Jauregui, E. 1990/1991. Influence of a large urban park on temperature and convective precipitation in a tropical country, Energy and Buildings, 15 – 16 pp. 45 – 63. Kellert, S.R. and Wilson, E.O. 1993. The biophilia hypothesis, (Island Press, Washington DC). Lin, B., Fuller, R., Bush, R., Gaston, K. and Shanahan, D. 2014. Opportunity or Orientation? Who Uses Urban Parks and Why, PLOS ONE, 9(1) pp. 1 – 7. Luttik, J. 2000. The value of trees, water and open space as reflected by house prices in the Netherlands, Landscape and Urban Planning, 48 pp. 161 – 167. Merrifield, A. 2013. The Urban Question under Planetary Urbanization, International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 37.3 pp. 909 – 922. Rosenzweig, M.L. 2003. Win-Win Ecology: How The Earth’s Species Can Survive In The Midst of Human Enterprise, (Oxford University Press, New York). Stokes, D.L. 2006. Conservators of Experience, BioScience, 56(1) pp. 6 – 7. Sutton, S.B. (ed.). 1971. Civilizing American Cities: A Selection of Frederick Law Olmsted’s Writings on City Landscapes, (MIT Press, Cambridge). The River Restoration Centre, 2009. The London Rivers Action Plan: A tool to help restore rivers for people and nature, http://www.therrc.co.uk/lrap/lplan.pdf. Thompson, C.W. 2002. Urban open space in the 21st Century, Landscape and Urban Planning, 60 pp. 59 – 72. Ulrich, R.S. 1984. View through a window may influence recovery from surgery, Science, 224 pp. 420 – 421. United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, 2014. World Urbanization Prospects: The 2014 Revision, Highlights (ST/ESA/SER.A/352). van den Berg, A.E., Maas, J., Verheij, R.A. and Groenewegen, P. 2010. Green space as a buffer between stressful life events and health, Social Science and Medicine, 70 pp. 1203 – 1210. Và ¶lker, S. and Kistemann, T. 2013. â€Å"I’m always entirely happy when I’m here!† Urban blue enhancing human health and well-being in Cologne and Dà ¼sseldorf, Germany, Social Science and Medicine, 78 pp.113 – 124. Wendel, H.E., Downs, J.A. and Milhelcic, J. 2011. Assessing Equitable Access to Urban Green Space: The Role of Engineered Water Infrastructure, Environmental Science and Technology, 45 pp. 6728 – 6734. Wendel, H.E., Zarger, R. and Mihelcic, J. 2012. Accessibility and usability: Green space preferences, perceptions and barriers in a rapidly urbanizing city in Latin America, Landscape and Urban Planning, 107 pp. 272 – 282. White, M., Smith, A., Humphryes, K., Pahl, S., Snelling, D. and Depledge, M. 2010. Blue Space: The importance of water for preference, affect and restorativeness ratings of natural and built scenes, Journal of Environmental Psychology, 30 pp. 482 493.

Intelligence, “Nature Versus Nurture” Essay

Intelligence is the ability to learn facts and skills and apply them; it can also be referred to as knowledge. When we look at knowledge we typically look at it from the aspect of nature and nurture, nature being what we come into this world with and nurture is what we acquire after we have entered this world. But the question I am focused on is where do we get our intelligence, are we born with it or are we somewhat gaining it after birth, is a new born child capable of knowing what is happening around him and grow up knowing how to act as an adult from birth or do he have to acquire the ability for adult performance?. So the experiment I am referring to was taught by one Dr. Richard Gerring, where taking a new born child and imagine what it would be like to come into a situation as such a child. One such example of testing intelligence starts with perceptions. It was thought for a long time that children was color blind, because we could not just ask a neonate â€Å"do you see colors?†, so the first experiment to detect whether a child perceive color would be from one researcher by the name of Burstein. Burstein took a set of 3 month old kids and give them solid colored toys and soon the kids got tired of looking at the toys over and over again; now the simple fact about colors is the wave length that they give off, colors such as green or orange gives off a bright wave length that is attractive, but a color like grey and white has dull wave lengths. Or also if you keep looking at the same color whether bright green or red you would soon get tired of the color because your brain has already adapted to it and you become bored. So to test this theory I did my own experiment. Scientific Question: Can children perceive colors and understand change although they are small and have not yet fully acquired learn intelligence of difference? Hypothesis: Children do perceive colors, they also have an intelligence of change in the factors around them just as older children and adults do even though they are of young age. My objective: To see whether children do perceive and understand colors although they may not know the colors by names, do they have the ability to detect the change from such a young age. Type of design of Qualitative Investigation: Investigation-action So with this experiment I am taking Three (5) children ages 3 months to 2 years old and place all of them in the same room for 5 days for 3 hours with the same set of toys: 2 red truck and 4 yellow cars. Based on investigation 5 days/3 hours results, an action would be taken to confirm findings. Methology The study type that we will carry out is descriptive. Universe: A preschool at the Community center, Vanard, Castries. Manipulate: 5 children ages 3 months to 2 years old. Operational variables: Sex and ages of the children, place and time Independent Variables: Colors of toys Techniques used to obtain the data of this study: * Direct Observation There needs to be constant observation of the children while playing with the toys and note the level of interest that is given to each toy over the period of 5 days for 3 hours, and then analyze data at the end of each day whether the interest dwindles or not. Make a note of just how much had the attention dwindled. Analysis of Data: Day 1: All 5 kids are happy with the new toys for the 3 hours Day 2: All kids are happy and move around contentedly with the toys Day 3: The Kids are demonstrating a lack of interest in the toys now and have come to interchange a lot between the 6 pieces. Day 4: The children are no long grabbing for the toys but are beginning to get very frets and occasionally when I give them a toy they may calm a bit but then continue to fret. Obvious signs that they no longer are interested in the toys. Day 5: Today is they last day and I have noticed for the past 2 hours nobody took the toys, at the 3rd hour they were all crying. Gathered Results: At the end of day five, I had a set of crying kids on my hands who were obviously unhappy and who were definitely were no longer interested in the given toys. So can I determine that the Children are just bored by the toys in themselves or the colors? So now what I would do is my action to the investigation to confirm the results from the 5 days. I took the same set of toys, 2 red truck and 4 yellow cars and I repainted them (please note that paint used was indeed child friendly and not harmful in toxins). The toys were repainted and reintroduced again the next day for the same 3 hours. Final Results: Amazing! The Kids grabbed at those toys as if they were new and were all laughs with the very same toys that yesterday received no attention. This proves simply that young children although they are not yet well cognitively develop do see colors. The fact that they saw the same color toys for 5 days for 3 hours and got bored on day 5 but had renewed interest in the same give toy on the 6 day when reintroduced in different colors told me they got a new stimulus to the change. That is a pretty interesting knowledge to confirm. For these children to know the difference in vision and its change and take interest in the toys do tells me they brought some intelligence into this into the world. So here we can see that we are born with the concept of knowing differences, which is great for gaining ability throughout life. Dr. Richard Gerring was saying that another way to tell children have intelligence is by using checkers on a board. You can use a young child under 5 years old and you spread the checker pieces between you and the child evenly, and ask the child who has more checkers, the child would say that you have more if you do or they do they would say. The point to this is that children understand the concept of   â€Å"more or less† although they do not know how to count. If you use two glasses of water then they can say which glass has more water and which do not. The fact that they understand quantity although they cannot express it shows intelligence that can be developed. So as the child gets older you start counting fingers and toes and soon the child can tell you that you have maybe ‘6’ more than they do or ‘6’ less. The fact that they grow to understand numbering tells us that they acquire knowledge and increase their intelligence from the mere concept of visual â€Å"more or less† that they originally had. So when we think of  intelligence and we think of knowledge in the sense of nature vs nurture, we can safely say that some intelligence we are born with and are integrated in our genes and there are some intelligence that are acquired and expanded upon but learning and concurring. Does this mean that our behavior can be manipulated from an early age through education? This question is answered by a simple experiment. The experiment can be done by looking at how kids acquire action to word, if you try to speak to a child age 3 years as you would an adult the child would be confused. So you have to simplify your speech to that child to get him/her to do what you need him/her to do. Like when you are getting a child to eat food, you would put the child in the high chair and by actions show the child you are opening in your mouth while saying â€Å"aaaahh†, your mouth opening and the word â€Å"aaaah† suggest that every time you do the action and bring the spoon up with food you want the child to open their mouth and eat. So you link action and words which manipulates the child actions and often you hear people saying the words like â€Å"yum yum† with a smiling expression while the child’s eating to get them to understand that what they are eating is good. Therefore we get actions to words and perception of the food. So when it comes to knowledge our environmental factors can con-coursing an influence us, bringing us into making decisions and having preferences to things that we were not born with. Reference Life of the Mind: Introduction to Psychology, Richard Gerring.

The Silver Linings Playbook Chapter 41

How Is She? My birthday falls on a Friday. December 29. In the afternoon, Mom helps me tape trash bags around my cast so I can take my first shower since I broke my leg. This is sort of embarrassing to talk about, but Mom has to help me keep my cast out of the shower, so she holds the shower curtain for me, protecting the cast, as I straddle the edge of the tub, trying to keep my weight on my good leg. Mom hands me the soap when I need it and also the shampoo. She pretends not to look at my naked body, but I am sure she gets a glimpse at some point, which makes me feel strange. I haven't worked out in days, so I feel very small and weak – but Mom doesn't say anything about my diminished girth, because she is a kind woman. After my shower, Mom helps me put on a pair of sweatpants she has modified, cutting one leg off at the thigh so my cast can fit through. I also put on a button-down shirt from the Gap and my new leather jacket. I hop down the steps, crutch my way out the door and into the backseat of Mom's car, sitting sideways so my cast will fit. When we arrive at the Voorhees house, I crutch my way into Cliff's office, pick the black recliner, prop my cast up on the footrest, and tell Cliff everything. When I finish my story, Cliff says, â€Å"So you've been in bed since Christmas?† â€Å"Yeah.† â€Å"And you have no interest in reading or watching television?† â€Å"No.† â€Å"And you're not working out your upper body at all? No weights?† â€Å"No.† â€Å"What do you do all day?† â€Å"I sleep, or I think. Sometimes I write, but Danny has been coming to visit me too.† I had already told Cliff all about God reuniting Danny and me, which even Cliff had to admit was a bit of a miracle and maybe the silver lining to my awful Christmas. â€Å"What do you and Danny do when he visits?† â€Å"We play Parcheesi.† â€Å"Parcheesi?† â€Å"It's the Royal Game of India. How can you not know it?† â€Å"I know Parcheesi. I'm just surprised you and Danny play board games together.† â€Å"Why?† Cliff makes a funny face, but doesn't say anything. â€Å"Danny brings his Parcheesi game all the way from North Philly. He rides the trains.† â€Å"That's good, right? It must be nice to see your old friend.† â€Å"I was sorry to learn that he still can't rap, even after a second operation, but his aunt got him a job doing the janitorial work at her church, which is also a day-care center. He wipes down the pews with pine oil and mops the floors and empties the trash and vacuums every night – stuff like that. He smells like pine trees now too, which is sort of a nice bonus. But Danny is quieter than I remember him being in the bad place.† â€Å"Did you tell Danny about what Tiffany did to you?† Cliff asks. â€Å"Yeah, I did.† â€Å"What did he say?† â€Å"Nothing.† â€Å"He didn't give you any advice?† â€Å"I didn't ask him for any advice.† â€Å"I see.† Cliff grabs his chin, which lets me know he is going to say something my mother has told him. â€Å"Pat, I know how you lost your memory. Everyone does.† He pauses here, gauging my reaction. â€Å"And I think you remember too. Do you?† â€Å"No.† â€Å"Do you want me to tell you how you lost your memory?† â€Å"No.† â€Å"Why?† I don't say anything. â€Å"I know Dr. Timbers used to tell you the story every day as part of your therapy. That's why I never brought it up. I thought maybe you would talk about it when you were ready, but it's been almost five months – and now you have a broken leg, and things seem to have gotten worse. I can't help feeling as though we need to start trying other tactics. What Tiffany suggested about closure is true. I'm not saying her methods were honorable, but you really do need to come to terms with what happened, Pat. You need closure.† â€Å"Maybe my movie isn't over,† I say, because sometimes moviemakers trick the audience with a false bad ending, and just when you think the movie is going to end badly, something dramatic happens, which leads to the happy ending. This seems like a good spot for something dramatic to happen, especially since it's my birthday. â€Å"Your life is not a movie, Pat. Life is not a movie. You're an Eagles fan. After watching so many NFL seasons without a Super Bowl, you should know that real life often ends poorly.† â€Å"How can you say that now, especially since the Eagles have won four straight and are headed into the play-offs – even after McNabb went down!† Cliff just looks at me, almost as if he is scared, and suddenly I realize that I was just yelling. But I can't help adding, â€Å"With a negative attitude like that, it will end poorly, Cliff! You're starting to sound like Dr. Timbers! You better watch out, or you're going to be defeated by pessimism!† There is a long silence, and Cliff looks really worried, which begins to worry me. On the drive home, Mom tells me that people are coming over for my birthday. She is making me a birthday dinner. â€Å"Is Nikki coming?† I ask. â€Å"No, Pat. Nikki is never coming,† Mom says. â€Å"Never.† When we arrive home, Mom makes me sit in the family room while she cooks meat loaf and mashed potatoes and green beans and an apple pie. She keeps trying to talk to me, but I really do not feel like talking. Jake and Caitlin arrive first, and they try to cheer me up by talking really enthusiastically about the Birds, but it doesn't work. When Ronnie and Veronica arrive, Emily climbs onto my lap, which makes me feel a little better. Caitlin asks Emily if she wants to draw a picture on my cast, and when she nods, Mom finds some markers and we all watch little Emily draw. She starts off by making a wobbly circle, which is understandable, since the cast is not perfectly flat, nor smooth. But then she just scribbles all sorts of colors everywhere, and I cannot tell what she is up to until she points to her creation and says, â€Å"Pap!† â€Å"Did you draw a picture of Uncle Pat?† Ronnie says, and when Emily nods, everyone laughs because it looks nothing like me. When we sit down at the dining-room table, my father is still not home. Even after the win over Dallas, he has been pretty distant lately, hiding in his study again. Nobody mentions my dad's absence, so I don't either. Mom's meal is delicious, and everyone says so. When it is time for pie, they sing â€Å"Happy Birthday† to me, and then little Emily helps me blow out the candles that make the shape of the number 35. I hardly believe that I can actually be thirty-five, because I still feel like I am thirty – maybe I only wish I were thirty, because then I'd have Nikki in my life. After we eat our pie, Emily helps me open my presents. I get a brand-new wooden hand-painted Parcheesi board from Mom, who says she invited Danny to my party, but he had to work. Ronnie, Emily, and Veronica give me an Eagles fleece blanket. Jake and Caitlin give me a membership to a gym in Philadelphia. The brochure in the box says the club has a pool and a steam room and basketball courts and racquetball courts and all types of weight-lifting equipment and other machines that build muscles. â€Å"It's where I work out,† my brother says. â€Å"And I was thinking we could start working out together once your leg mends.† Even though I'm not all that interested in working out so much anymore, I realize that the membership is a nice present, so I thank Jake. When we retire to the living room, I ask Veronica about Tiffany. â€Å"How's Tiffany?† I say. I'm not really sure why I ask. The words just sort of slip out of my mouth, and when they do, everyone stops talking and a silence hangs in the air. â€Å"I invited her to your party,† Mom finally offers, probably just so Veronica will not feel badly about her sister being excluded. â€Å"Why?† Jake asks. â€Å"So she can lie to Pat again? Set him back a few more years?† â€Å"She was only trying to help,† Veronica says. â€Å"Your sister has a funny way of helping.† â€Å"Stop,† Caitlin says to Jake. And then the room is silent again. â€Å"So how is she?† I ask, because I really do want to know.

Measuring Earthquake Magnitudes

These days, an earthquake happens and right away it is on the news, including its magnitude. Instant earthquake magnitudes seem as routine an achievement as reporting the temperature, but theyre the fruit of generations of scientific work. Why Earthquakes Are Hard to Measure Earthquakes are very hard to measure on a standard scale of size. The problem is like finding one number for the quality of a baseball pitcher. You can start with the pitchers win-loss record, but there are more things to consider: earned-run average, strikeouts and walks, career longevity and so on. Baseball statisticians tinker with indexes that weigh these factors (for more, visit the About Baseball Guide). Earthquakes are easily as complicated as pitchers. They are fast or slow. Some are gentle, others are violent. Theyre even right-handed or left-handed. They are oriented different ways—horizontal, vertical, or in between (see Faults in a Nutshell). They occur in different geologic settings, deep within continents or out in the ocean. Yet somehow we want a single meaningful number for ranking the worlds earthquakes. The goal has always been to figure out the total amount of energy a quake releases, because that tells us profound things about the dynamics of the Earths interior. Richters First Scale The pioneering seismologist Charles Richter started in the 1930s by simplifying everything he could think of. He chose one standard instrument, a Wood-Anderson seismograph, used only nearby earthquakes in Southern California, and took only one piece of data—the distance A in millimeters that the seismograph needle moved. He worked up a simple adjustment factor B to allow for near versus distant quakes, and that was the first Richter scale of local magnitude ML: ML log A B A graphical version of his scale is reproduced on the Caltech archives site. Youll notice that ML really measures the size of earthquake waves, not an earthquakes total energy, but it was a start. This scale worked fairly well as far as it went, which was for small and moderate earthquakes in Southern California. Over the next 20 years Richter and many other workers extended the scale to newer seismometers, different regions, and different kinds of seismic waves. Later Richter Scales Soon enough Richters original scale was abandoned, but the public and the press still use the phrase Richter magnitude. Seismologists used to mind, but not any more. Today seismic events may be measured based on body waves or surface waves (these are explained in Earthquakes in a Nutshell). The formulas differ but they yield the same numbers for moderate earthquakes. Body-wave magnitude is mb log(A/T) Q(D,h) where A is the ground motion (in microns), T is the waves period (in seconds), and Q(D,h) is a correction factor that depends on distance to the quakes epicenter D (in degrees) and focal depth h (in kilometers). Surface-wave magnitude is Ms log(A/T) 1.66 logD 3.30 mb uses relatively short seismic waves with a 1-second period, so to it every quake source that is larger than a few wavelengths looks the same. That corresponds to a magnitude of about 6.5. Ms uses 20-second waves and can handle larger sources, but it too saturates around magnitude 8. Thats OK for most purposes because magnitude-8 or great events happen only about once a year on average for the whole planet. But within their limits, these two scales are a reliable gauge of the actual energy that earthquakes release. The biggest earthquake whose magnitude we know was in 1960, in the Pacific right off central Chile on May 22. Back then, it was said to be magnitude 8.5, but today we say it was 9.5. What happened in the meantime was that Tom Hanks and Hiroo Kanamori came up with a better magnitude scale in 1979. This moment magnitude, Mw, is not based on seismometer readings at all but on the total energy released in a quake, the seismic moment Mo (in dyne-centimeters): Mw 2/3 log(Mo) - 10.7 This scale therefore does not saturate. Moment magnitude can match anything the Earth can throw at us. The formula for Mw is such that below magnitude 8 it matches Ms and below magnitude 6 it matches mb, which is close enough to Richters old ML. So keep calling it the Richter scale if you like—its the scale Richter would have made if he could. The U.S. Geological Surveys Henry Spall interviewed Charles Richter in 1980 about his scale. It makes  lively reading. PS: Earthquakes on Earth simply cant get bigger than around Mw 9.5. A piece of rock can store up only so much strain energy before it ruptures, so the size of a quake depends strictly on how much rock—how many kilometers of fault length—can rupture at once. The Chile Trench, where the 1960 quake occurred, is the longest straight fault in the world. The only way to get more energy is with giant landslides or asteroid impacts.